IN
May 2001, UNESCO for the first time awarded the title
of "Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage
of Humanity" to 19 outstanding cultural forms of
expression from different regions of the world. Kunqu
Opera, a school of traditional Chinese opera, was among
them. It is the only Chinese art form listed, and is
now a facet of the common cultural heritage of humankind.
Criteria used in the selection process were outstanding
value, roots in cultural tradition, affirmation of cultural
identity, source of inspiration and intercultural exchange,
contemporary cultural and social role, excellence in
the application of skills, unique testimony of living
cultural tradition, and risk of disappearing. This initiative
to help preserve traditional and popular culture is
intended to complement UNESCO's World Heritage List
of natural and cultural sites. Inclusions under this
category include languages, stories, music, games, dances,
customs and various performing arts.
UNESCO has pointed out that many forms of intangible
cultural heritage are in danger of extinction. It aims
to encourage governments and non-governmental and local
organizations to appraise, protect and utilize their
national heritage in order to maintain the cultural
diversity of all countries, within the overall trend
of globalization.
Origins and Development
Kunqu
is one of the earliest forms of traditional Chinese
drama, having a history of more than 600 years. Its
operatic melodies originate from Kunshan in Jiangsu
Province. After extensive exploration and reworking
by its performers, it gradually developed into today's
Kunqu.
Before the mid-Ming Dynasty (1368-1644), Kunshan melodies
were popular in central Jiangsu, until Wei Liangfu,
a singer of melodies in the northern style, migrated
to Kunshan from Nanchang, Jiangxi Province. Together
with performing singers of southern melodies, he made
major changes to the songs of Kunshan. Keeping Kunshan
tunes as a base, while absorbing the best features of
Haiyan and Yuyao airs, combined with northern singing
techniques, they created a new singing genre. In order
to make the accompanying music suit these new songs,
Wei Liangfu also adapted the musical instruments of
the time, with the help of celebrated musician Zhang
Yetang. This was how Kunqu, a new form of drama combining
both northern and southern musical characteristics,
came into being.
At that time, Kunqu was simply singing,
with no costumes, makeup or acting. It was Liang Chenyu
(1519-1591), a native of Kunshan, who transformed Kunqu
into stage drama. He was a famous playwright who also
excelled at poetry and music. Wei Liangfu's achievements
in transmuting Kunqu melodies were a great influence
on Liang, but he believed that these new tunes should
not be confined to singing. He and several other accomplished
musicians wrote "Washing the Silken Gauze,"
a Kunqu Opera in which the main character was the legendary
beauty, Xi Shi. The performance was a great success.
Kunqu became quickly popular, and numerous new plays
were subsequently created and staged. During the early
years of Emperor Wanli's reign, Kunqu spread to various
locations in Jiangsu and Zhejiang, eventually becoming
the dominant dramatic style. Later, Kunqu was introduced
to Beijing, and became one of the two official forms
of drama within the imperial court, and was soon a nationwide
favorite. A large number of Kunqu plays and performers
emerged, and were welcomed by both scholars and ordinary
citizens alike. In Jiangsu and Zhejiang in particular,
the most illiterate rural inhabitants could sing one
or two lines of the songs from major works. Kunqu maintained
a position as the most popular national style of drama
for more than 200 years, leaving a glorious page in
the Chinese history of performing arts.
Decline
From
its zenith, Kunqu gradually declined, due to external
and internal factors. From the late Ming Dynasty onwards,
Kunqu was most often performed for the privileged classes
and members of the imperial court, and gradually become
removed from the reality of the broad masses, to become
excessively formal and stylized. In the mid-Qing Dynasty
(1644-1911) it underwent a decline.
The lyrics of Kunqu were originally elegant and flowery,
but later became obscure to the point of incomprehensibility,
and its melodies slowed down to a funereal level. Kunqu
therefore became unacceptable to all but a few dedicated
aficionados. The scope of themes also became narrower,
and some plays were overlong. "The Peony Pavilion,"
for instance, consisted of 55 acts, and one performance
lasted more than 20 hours. All these factors restricted
the continued development and popularity of Kunqu, and
it lost most of its audience. By the late 18th century,
competition between "huabu" (the miscellaneous
genre) and "yabu" (the elegant genre) accelerated
the decline of Kunqu.
"Huabu" refers to the local tunes of various
places, such as "jingqiang" (Beijing tunes),
"qinqiang" (Shaanxi tunes), "bangzi"
(clapper opera) and the "erhuang" style. "Yabu"
refers to Kunqu. "Huabu" originated from the
common people, who were its main audience. The words
of its local tunes were easily understood by the lowliest
in the social order, and their plots were very popular.
Within this competitive scenario, the superiority of
Huabu was obvious. A turning point was marked by the
Anhui Opera performance of Huabu in Beijing in 1790,
an event which was instrumental in the development of
the Peking Opera musical style. Later, several Anhui
Opera troupes came to perform in Beijing, and this art
form evolved into the Peking Opera which later became
dominant.
It might be said that this competition was beneficial
for the development of Chinese drama, as both winner
and loser gained from their mutual exchange. Sometimes
Kunqu and Huabu were performed on the same stage. Peking
Opera evolved from the incorporation of these diverse
strands.
Variation and Evolution
Peking
Opera absorbed the melodies from various local operas,
its prototype being based on those of Anhui and Hubei
Opera, but the Kunqu melodies also constituted an important
facet. The Kunqu style of performance was also the basis
of the distinctive Peking Opera acting technique, and
the Peking Opera repertoire retained the more superior
Kunqu arias. Consequently, an aria performed by Kunqu
actors was called Kunqu, while the same aria performed
by actors of Peking Opera was called Peking Opera. Students
of Peking Opera were for many years required to learn
Kunqu skills, and some Peking Opera masters, such as
Tan Xinpei and Mei Lanfang, could sing both Kunqu and
Peking Opera. Even today, some of the scenes within
Peking Opera are borrowed from Kunqu, and there are
plays, such as "The Storming of Zhu Village,"
which are performed by both Kunqu and Peking Opera troupes.
Although Kunqu has declined, it is still considered
an elite strand within Chinese drama. It is very popular
in Suzhou, its birthplace, and a growing number of Kunqu
enthusiasts made a serious study of this form of performing
art.
Kunqu was dubbed the "teacher of various drama
forms," as Kunqu performers worked dedicatedly
to pass on their art throughout China. Some performers
left the imperial court and princes' mansions to give
shows in central Hebei Province. They performed both
Kunqu and Gaoqiang Opera, and formed a new genre --
northern Kunqu Opera. Since then, Kunqu has been divided
into northern and southern Kunqu.
After the founding of the People's Republic of China
in 1949, the Chinese government made great efforts to
protect and develop the art of Kunqu. In the early 1950s,
the government organized Kunqu artists into various
theatrical troupes. In the mid-1950s several Kunqu theatrical
festivals were held in Shanghai and Beijing, and in
1956, the Guofeng Kunqu Troupe from Jiangsu performed
"Fifteen Strings of Copper Coins" in Beijing.
It tells of an upright official, Kuang Zhong, who reversed
an unjust verdict after disputing it with his superior,
putting forward a rational argument. The performance
was a great success and caused a sensation in the national
capital, where it was jocularly suggested that "One
performance saved an entire genre of drama." In
1957 the Northern Kunqu Theater was established in Beijing,
and in 1960 the Shanghai Youth Kunqu Troupe was founded.
Later, Kunqu troupes were established in Jiangsu, and
Hunan's Chenzhou, and amateur troupes sprang up in diverse
places. A new generation of Kunqu performers grew up
during this period, such as Shanghai's Hua Wenyi and
Yue Meiti, Beijing's Cong Zhaohuan, Hou Shaokui and
Hong Xuefei, and Jiangsu's Zhang Jiqing.
Kunqu Repertoire: A Treasure House of Drama and Literature
In its 600-year history, Kunqu has accumulated a repertoire
of more than 400 "zhezixi" (highlights from
operas). Some of their scripts were written by outstanding
playwrights. Guan Hanqing, for instance, wrote more
than 60 zaju (poetic dramas), including "The Injustice
to Dou E" (also known as "Snow in Midsummer").
The Kunqu repertoire contains 18 of his preserved poetic
dramas, some of which continue to be performed on stage.
Other masterpieces include "The West Chamber"
by Wang Shifu, "The Peony Pavilion" by Tang
Xianzu, "The Palace of Eternal Youth" by Hong
Sheng, and "The Peach Blossom Fan" by Kong
Shangren.
The West Chamber" tells of a romance set against
the ancient feudal society, in which a young man and
woman pursue their rights to freedom of marriage. This
opera became known to the masses of China over a period
of one thousand years. This poetic drama, written by
Wang Shifu, attained an extremely high artistic level
as regards its lyrics, music, plot and performing skills
and became what is today a classic among Chinese dramas.
In one act, "Farewell at the Rest Pavilion,"
the lyrics describing the scenery are particularly moving.
Nowadays, there are few performers who can sing arias
such as this, but there are many people who recite these
peerless verses for personal enjoyment.
Performing Art Model
In
the performance of Kunqu, refinement and rigor are emphasized.
A standard Kunqu scenario is very intricate. A Kunqu
program not only details the arrangements of acts, verses,
and the names of tunes to which verses are set, but
also defines the roles, stage settings, costumes, props,
and performers' movements, even going so far as to explain
the significance of the position performers take on
stage.
The roles of Kunqu are broadly divided into seven categories,
including sheng (male roles), dan (female roles), jing
(painted face), mo (middle-aged male roles), chou (clowns),
wai, and tie, and each category has further subdivisions.
For instance, the sheng roles have laosheng (aged male
roles), wusheng (male warriors), and xiaosheng (young
male roles), each of which are further divided according
to the characters' prominence within the play. The xiaosheng
-- young male role -- is divided into daguansheng (big
hat role), xiaoguansheng (small hat role), jinsheng
(kerchief role), qiongsheng (pauper role) and zhiweisheng
(a warrior whose helmet decorated by a pheasant tail
feather). The dan roles are divided into six sub-categories.
The Kunqu style of stage makeup is mainly used for jing
and chou roles, and occasionally for sheng and dan roles.
The three predominant colors being red, white and black.
The shades of blue, green, purple and gold are used
to portray forest brigands, or ghosts and demons. As
in Peking Opera, the color red represents loyalty and
justice, black conveys uprightness and straightforwardness,
white signifies cunning and shrewdness, and yellow indicates
a fierce, tough character. Most of the patterns and
techniques of Peking Opera facial makeup evolved from
Kunqu, and some were just copied from it.
The most prominent characteristic of Kunqu performance
is its lyricism, where the posture of each role is in
a dancing mode. Almost all traditional Chinese drama
has elements of dance, and in some plays dances have
been added, but these are unlike Kunqu, where every
physical movement from beginning to end is in the mode
of dance, thus creating a complete scope of performance
technique.
Mei Lanfang, a great master of Peking Opera, also learned
Kunqu, and had a deep understanding of both. He said,
"In Peking Opera, postures are relatively unrehearsed,
with no structured choreography, but Kunqu is quite
different in this respect. The performer match specific
postures to each aria. Kunqu truly integrates singing
and dancing into each individual performance, with equal
emphasis on singing and acting. Performing Kunqu is
particularly demanding because the actor is, in effect,
dancing from beginning to end."
Kunqu dance is divided into two categories. One is mime,
used to interpret to the audience the verses the performer
sings; the other is lyrical, to describe scenery, the
characters' situation, and their emotions.
One zhezixi (opera highlight), "Zhaojun Leaves
the Pass," tells of Wang Zhaojun, a beauty at the
Han Dynasty imperial court, on her way to marry the
Xiongnu Khan, in order to cement relations with the
rulers of ethnic minorities in the border regions. The
drama describes Zhaojun's complex emotions and the hardships
of the journey. On stage, Zhaojun sings while dancing,
and her attendant turns somersaults throughout the performance,
which is why this drama is seldom performed, because
few performers are able to fulfill its demands.
Plays in this genre are not only taxing for the performers,
but also for the audience, since the lyrics are difficult
to understand, and the singing is slow and drawn out
-- a challenge to concentration and patience. In addition,
a drama is generally quite long. In June, 2001, "The
Peony Pavilion" was performed in Berlin, Germany,
and lasted 19 hours. The local newspaper dubbed it as
"a drama marathon." It is rare to see a full
performance of this play at one sitting. Usually only
a few acts are performed, each lasting 30 to 40 minutes.
Revitalization
Kunqu
has for several centuries, undergone ups and downs in
staging popularity, but its supreme status has never
been challenged. It has played a guiding role in the
creation of other forms of traditional opera, and it
has generated a dedicated following of devotees. Its
role in fostering the spirit of Chinese men of letters
living within Chinese feudal society cannot be underestimated.
In recent years, following the rapid and dramatic change
in concepts and lifestyles of the Chinese people, the
survival of Kunqu has faced an enormous challenge. Within
this relatively harsh environment, however, it has preserved
its ancient tradition, and its supreme artistry is today
acknowledged the world over. This has without doubt
contributed to its preservation, revitalization and
development.
June 2001 marked the 44th anniversary of the founding
of the Northern Kunqu Theater in Beijing. On hearing
the news that Kunqu had been listed as a world cultural
heritage, people in the Kunqu circles were ecstatic,
and a grand celebratory performance was held. Officials
from the Beijing Cultural Bureau promised that it would,
within the coming year, set aside a venue for Kunqu
performance, and work out a series of protective measures
and policies. On June 9, the Chinese Ministry of Culture
declared Kunqu as a key protected art form, and promulgated
eight concrete measures.
The Chinese people have finally realized their greater
cultural responsibilities in protecting and preserving
Kunqu.
By staff reporter HUO JIANYING September 2001 China Today