A Women of the Tang Dynasty
DURING
China's feudal epoch, society was male-centered. There was consequently
a pervasive belief in man's superiority over woman that continued
as the ruling ideology throughout feudal society. Women were thus
regarded as little more than bond servants in feudal China.
At this time, male dominance was guaranteed and maintained by certain
norms. The three cardinal guides (ruler guides subject, father guides
son, and husband guides wife) and the five constant virtues (benevolence,
righteousness, propriety, wisdom and sincerity) defined social behavior,
and the three obediences (in ancient China a woman was required
to obey her father before marriage, her husband during marriage,
and her sons in widowhood) and four virtues (women's fidelity, physical
charm, propriety in speech and proficiency at needle work) guided
the family order.
In feudal China, women had no say at all as regards their marriage
partner, being expected to comply unconditionally with their parents
or brothers' arrangements. Women had neither the right to divorce
their husbands, nor to remarry. Whether or not a woman outlived
her husband, she was permitted to marry only once in her lifetime.
On the other hand, a husband could lawfully abandon his wife if
she committed one of the seven sins: being unfilial, barren, lascivious,
jealous, succumbed to a repellent disease, meddling, or stealing.
Having such a low social and familial status, women could not even
dream of filling a place within the political and economic realm.
During the long, dark period of Chinese feudal history that lasted
more than 2,000 years, however, there was a brief and sunny respite
for ancient downtrodden Chinese women. This was during the 618 to
765 zenith of the Tang Dynasty. Scholars from later ages agree that,
compared to the majority of ancient Chinese women, those of the
Tang Dynasty were blessed to have lived at this propitious time.
Lucky Ladies of the Tang Dynasty
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Women of the Tang Dynasty were fortunate to live
at a time characterized by open-mindedness and liberal ideas.
After Emperor Taizong (Li Shimin) ascended the throne, Chinese politics,
economics, culture, and national and foreign relations all underwent
great development. National cohesion, and foreign spiritual and
material civilization wielded great influence on the Tang Dynasty,
greatly accelerating its progress. Li Shimin and other capable emperors
adopted a series of guidelines and policies that could enrich the
country and benefit the people, thus laying firm foundations for
the later prosperity of the Tang Dynasty as embodied by the Zhenguan
Governance and the Splendor of Kaiyuan.
At the peak of the Tang Dynasty, advanced productivity and a strong
economic basis were also reflected in the fields of philosophy,
politics, culture, art, social ethics, and, most significantly,
female social status.
Shortly after the establishment of the Tang Dynasty, the imperial
court decreed a favorable land allocation and taxation system in
order to resume and develop agricultural production, which at the
time took a leading role in the national economy. According to the
new system, the government allocated land to both male householders
and widows, the latter being given a greater share of land if they
had dependants. With their own land on which to live, women could
be more economically independent.
According to the Tang Code, a couple wishing to divorce on the basis
of mutual consent and a peaceful process were not to be punished.
This signifies that the law protected people's right to divorce
through consultation. Historical records show that it was not unusual
for women to divorce or remarry at this time. As a contrast to the
prevailing attitude of other feudal dynasties, a widow was not considered
to be "unchaste" if she remarried. A Tang Dynasty divorce
agreement, unearthed from Dunhuang, reads: "Since we cannot
live together harmoniously, we had better separate. I hope that
after the divorce, niangzi (a form of address for one's wife) can
be as young and beautiful as before, and may you find a more satisfactory
husband. I hope that the divorce will not plant hatred between us
in the future." This divorce agreement reflects not only the
Tang women's equality within marriage but also the general open-mindedness
of the Tang people.
Women
of the royal family were not subject to marital restrictions or
constraints either. From the reign of Emperor Gaozong to that of
Emperor Suzong during the early and middle Tang Dynasty, there were
altogether 98 princesses, of which 61 married, among whom 24 remarried,
and four married three times. This trend shook the very foundations
of traditional feudal ethics.
During the Tang Dynasty, it was common for the Han to intermarry
with other ethnic groups or foreigners, and there was a law protecting
Sino-foreign intermarriage. According to historical records: "Many
huren (people of non-Han origin) who had lived in Chang'an for a
long time married Han women and produced children." "Huren
intermarry with the Han people, and now many youngsters in Chang'an
are of mixed blood." Female members of the royal family were
also married to other nationalities. Seven of Emperor Gaozu's 19
daughters were married to men of other nationalities, and eight
of Emperor Taizong's 21 daughters took foreign husbands. In the
15th year (641) of the Zhenguan era, Princess Wencheng was married
to the king of Tubo. She brought many advanced production techniques
to Tubo, making a great contribution to the friendship and cultural
exchanges between the Han and Tibetan people.
The Tang Dynasty attached great importance to education, and Tang
women were granted the same rights to, and opportunities for, education
as men. This splendid dynasty is probably most celebrated for its
wealth of great poets. The Complete Poetry of the Tang contains
over 50,000 poems written by more than 2,000 poets, of whom at least
20 were influential figures in the history of Chinese literature.
There were also many famous poetesses, of whom Shangguan Wan'er
is representative. Shangguan's poems were in a style of all her
own -- the Shangguan style, which provided much inspiration for
Li Bai, the most famous of all ancient Chinese poets. In the Tang
Dynasty, writing poetry was not merely the privilege pursuit of
noblewomen but was also practiced by those of common origins.
Tang women also had the chance to learn history, politics, and military
skills. At the founding of this dynasty, Princess Pingyang personally
participated in battles, having led a detachment of women to help
her father, Emperor Gaozu. Princess Taiping, daughter of Emperor
Gaozong, twice suppressed mutinies inside the imperial court at
critical times.
Living within a relaxed social environment, and having an independent
social status, the behavior of well-educated Tang women was obviously
quite different from that of the women of former dynasties. They
could drink wine to the limit of their capacity, and sing loudly
in taverns; gallop through the suburbs with abandon; or even compete
with men on the polo field. In the Tang Dynasty, women conducted
social activities and carried on business independently. They even
distinguished themselves within the political arena, a prime example
being Empress Zhangsun -- the most virtuous empress in China.
Virtuous Empress
Empress
Zhangsun was the wife of Emperor Taizong (Li Shimin). She was of
Xianbei (an ancient ethnic group in China) origin. Zhangsun grew
up on the central plains and received a very good education there,
having a particularly good command of literature and history. At
the time of Li Shimin's rivalry for the throne with his royal brothers,
Zhangsun repeatedly cleared Li Shimin before Emperor Gaozu of the
misdeeds with which he had been falsely framed. During the Xuanwumen
Mutiny (in which Emperor Gaozu's sons fought for the throne), Zhangsun
made a personal appearance in order to raise the army's morale,
thus ultimately helping Li Shimin get rid of his political enemies.
After being crowned empress, Zhangsun continued to live a simple
life and prevented her relatives from obtaining official ranks through
her influence. She would often advise Li Shimin to solicit useful
suggestions and advice from courtiers. Wei Zheng, the prime minister
during the reign of Emperor Taizong, was frequently blunt when remonstrating
with the emperor. Sometimes Emperor Taizong was so infuriated that
he threatened to behead Wei Zheng without further ado, but each
time, it was Empress Zhangsun who poured oil on the troubled waters
and protected the loyal prime minister.
As mistress of the imperial harem, Empress Zhangsun was very considerate
to the emperor's concubines, treating their children as her own.
On hearing that any one of the concubines was ill, she would dose
her with her own medicine. All concubines deeply respected Empress
Zhangsun, and they lived together harmoniously, thus giving the
emperor optimum time to handle state affairs.
At
the 10th year (636) of the Zhenguan Era, Empress Zhangsun died of
illness at the age of 36. Before her death, she left a will asking
for a simple burial, and advising Emperor Taizong to take heed of
earnest advice and to be good to the common people. Emperor Taizong
deeply mourned Zhangsun's death, and built a high platform inside
the royal palace, from where he could see the Zhao Mausoleum where
his beloved empress had been laid to rest.
Empress Wu Zetian
The ultimate Tang Dynasty woman was undoubtedly Wu Zetian. There
were altogether 243 emperors during the 2,000 years from the beginning
of the Qin Dynasty (221 BC) to the end of the Qing Dynasty (1911),
and Wu Zetian was the only female monarch among them. Wu Zetian
was the most legendary and controversial figure in Chinese history.
She lived to be 82, and held power for 50 years.
Wu Zetian was born into an official's family in Wenshui, Shanxi
Province. She was not only beautiful but also very intelligent.
Although bestowed with strong female charm and grace, Wu Zetian
was firm and unyielding in all her dealings. She entered the palace
at the age of 14 and was assigned to wait upon Emperor Taizong,
who gave her the name Mei, meaning charming and lovely, in acknowledgement
of her beauty. But she did not like this name. After taking over
power, she changed her name to Zhao (meaning the light of the sun
and the moon illuminating every corner of the land). Wu Zetian was
an uncompromising woman. At one time there was a wild and savage
horse in the palace stables that no one could tame. Wu Zetian said
that the way to deal with it was first to beat it with an iron whip,
and if that did not work, to kill it. Wu Zetian was initially conferred
the title of cairen (concubine of medium rank), but was unable to
win much favor with Emperor Taizong. She worked as his secretary
for 12 years, but she was neither promoted nor able to give birth
to his child. Emperor Taizong's son, Li Zhi, however, was deeply
infatuated with her. After the death of Taizong, Li Zhi was enthroned
and Wu Zetian became empress. The emperor and empress ruled the
country jointly. Since Li Zhi had delicate health, Wu Zetian was
the actual ruler of the country. When Li Zhi died, Wu Zetian managed
to stabilize the political situation based on her abundant experience
of political intrigue. In 690, Wu Zetian ascended the throne and
changed the title of the dynasty to Zhou. She disposed of all her
political enemies and established the Wu family court. As monarch,
she was a hardworking, sagacious and caring ruler. During Wu Zetian's
reign, the country maintained its prosperity and the people lived
in peace. The tribes who lived at the time of the newly established
Zhou Dynasty all pledged allegiance to the empress.
Having worked as Emperor Taizong's secretary for 12 years, Wu Zetian
was very familiar with the former emperor's main priorities in his
management of state affairs, many of which she followed, for example,
his stress on agriculture, reducing tax and corvee, practicing a
peaceful foreign policy, and widely soliciting advice and suggestions.
The empress took great care to select talented people and put them
in important positions. She also encouraged and supported female
participation in politics. Shangguan Wan'er is a perfect example.
Both her grandfather and father had been killed for opposing Wu
Zetian's accession to power, and the young Wan'er and her mother
were employed as maidservants at the palace where Wan'er received
a very good education. She not only wrote beautiful poetry, but
also gained an intimate knowledge of state affairs. Wu Zetian greatly
appreciated her ability, and appointed Wan'er as her personal aide.
Shangguan Wan'er proved her worth to the empress, not only through
her ability to participate in the decision-making required by the
memorials to the throne, but also by drafting imperial edicts for
the empress. Shangguan once even acted as chief examiner of the
final imperial examination. After Wu Zetian died, Shangguan Wan'er
remained at court to assist Emperor Zhongzong in governing the country.
Wu Zetian was very tolerant of different opinions emanating from
her subordinates. Xu Yougong was the official in charge of the judiciary,
but would often confront the empress with his dissatisfaction at
some of the court verdicts. On one occasion, Wu Zetian became so
incensed that she issued an order to behead Xu, but just as the
execution was about to start, she pardoned him, instead demoting
him to a commoner. When her anger had abated, she continued to solicit
Xu's opinion, and reinstated him as head of the judiciary. In conclusion,
Wu Zetian was an empress of status, power, and outstanding achievement.
Merits or Demerits, History Has the Verdict
In order to maintain social stability, just before her death Wu
Zetian decided to return state power to the Tang Dynasty. However,
the shock waves caused by her behavior have never subsided. Even
today, there are still opposing opinions as regards her conduct
and her personality. No matter whether the epithet "iron hand
empress" is complimentary or pejorative, no one can deny the
history she created. During Wu Zetian's reign, the achievements
of her predecessors were carried forward and further developed,
eventually bringing the Tang Dynasty to the peak of its Kaiyuan
splendor. Within the Tang Dynasty's centuries-long prosperity, 50
years can be accredited to Wu Zetian. It was the Tang Dynasty that
created Empress Wu Zetian, and this indomitable woman reciprocated
by devoting her life and energies to her people.
Wu Zetian left orders that upon her death a tablet should be erected
in front of the tomb in which she and Emperor Gaozong were buried,
but that this tablet be left blank. In Wu Zetian's view, the merits
and demerits of her life were subject to the evaluation of history
alone. As empress she enjoyed emperor status and the people's support,
but as a woman she had sacrificed almost everything -- relatives,
friends, love, and ultimately, her life. How could a few words inscribed
on a tablet hope to reflect the joys and woes of her life and the
fickleness of the world she inhabited?
As well as being an outstanding politician, Wu Zetian was also a
great poetess and calligrapher. Versatile as she was, however, her
passing nevertheless filled her subjects with a sense of desolation.
Yang Yuhuan was another unforgettable woman of the Tang Dynasty.
She was extremely beautiful and also proficient in dance and music.
Yang Yuhuan was very much in love with Emperor Xuanzong, and the
two were inseparable. This, however, incurred strong disapproval
from the emperor's subordinates, and in the end, as the pair fled
from the rebel army, Yang Yuhuan was forced to hang herself.
Unlike Wu Zetian, Yang Yuhuan had no hand in politics, despite being
the highest-ranking imperial concubine, yet, whether or not they
entered into the politics of the time, both women were strongly
discriminated against on the basis of their gender. Although Wu
Zetian and Yang Yuhuan both lived in the open-minded Tang Dynasty,
they could still not completely shake off the prejudice and bigotry
that the feudal ethical code directed at them, especially within
political struggle.
In retrospect, the so-called lucky women of the Tang Dynasty may
not have been fortunate enough to inspire the envy of today's women,
but the Tang women's contribution towards advancing historical progress
is undeniable and admirable.
By staff reporter HUO JIANYING November 2001 China Today