Recruiting Talent to Rejuvenate the Han Dynasty
THE
huge military formation of terracotta warriors and horses guarding
Qinshihuang's tomb were unearthed in the 1970s after more than 2,000
years. The grand scale and consummate workmanship of this underground
army amazed the world, and it has since become known as the eighth
wonder of the world.
The Downfall of Qin and the Chu-Han War
Today, the Qin Tomb terracotta warriors and horses are priceless
treasures, but ancients paid heavily for this project. At that time,
the total population of the nation stood at 20 million, but more
than 700,000 were requisitioned to build Qinshihuang's tomb, and
the project had still not been completed when the Qin Dynasty was
overthrown. A further 2 million people were requisitioned to build
the Great Wall and palaces and to serve as garrisons along the frontier,
so, women and children apart, most of the young and able-bodied
labor force were on requisition. During the Qin Dynasty, the corvee
burden was 30 times that of any previous time, and the rent and
taxes paid by peasants made up one third of their yields, 20 times
that of previous times. In order to enslave and suppress the common
people, the Qin Dynasty imposed cruel laws, and more than 1 million
people were in "penal servitude."
Qin
Ershi usurped the throne in 209 BC, and Qin rule became still crueler,
until a peasant uprising led by Chen Sheng and Wu Guang broke out.
Although Chen and Wu were murdered half a year later, armed uprisings
continued in various places. From Qinshihuang to the surrender of
Ziying to the Han troops, the Qin Dynasty lasted just 15 years over
three generations, making it the shortest of China's feudal dynasties.
After the downfall of the Qin Dynasty, the war for leadership began
and lasted several years, eventually narrowing down to two great
forces, headed by Xiang Yu of Chu and Liu Bang of Han, known as
the Chu-Han War.
Although
it occurred more than 2,000 years ago, this four-year-long war is
to this day a source of interest and fascination, and occupies an
important position in Chinese history, especially in its history
of wars. It constituted overall contention in the political, economic
and military fields, and demonstrated how changes in strength could
result in the weak eventually defeating the strong. This war was
also an outstanding example of a battle of wits, and at its conclusion
there emerged the unified and strong Han Dynasty that lasted more
than 400 years.
Enlist Talents: A Prerequisite to Winning the Country
In
the late Qin Dynasty numerous talented people rose in revolt, and
descendants of the rulers of the six states restored their spheres
of influence. Among the six states, that ruled by Xiang Yu was the
strongest. Emperor Yidi had only an empty title and no real power,
and was supplanted by Liu Bang, who had been a petty official before
joining the revolt. He was able to defeat Xiang Yu and unite the
country due to two reasons. First, he knew how to choose the right
person for the right job; and second, he made his capital in Guanzhong,
where there was freedom to advance or retreat without any fear of
attacks from the rear. Xiang Yu, on the other hand, fought in two
lines, one in the east and the other in the west, and could not
attend to one line without neglecting the other. This is why Liu
Bang was able to defeat Xiang Yu.
It
was actually Liu Bang that, prior to any historian, personally summarized
these two points. Soon after Liu Bang ascended the throne, he held
a banquet at the South Palace in Luoyang, and said to his ministers
warmly, "Today we are gathered here happily under the same
roof, and you need have no fear of speaking your mind. How did I
win the country, and how did Xiang Yu lose it?" Gao Qi and
Wang Ling, two ministers, said, "Your Majesty rewards the officers
and men who have performed meritorious service, so we are all willing
to serve under your leadership. Xiang Yu lost the country because
he did not give rewards to those who deserved them, and was suspicious
and jealous of the talented." Liu held that the two of them
still did not grasp the fundamental reason, and stated that he had
been able to win the Chu-Han War because he chose the right people
for the right jobs. He told his ministers, "I am inferior to
Zhang Liang in that he could sit within a command tent and devise
strategies that would assure victory a thousand li away; I am inferior
to Xiao He in that he could reassure and pacify the public and guarantee
a supply of troops; and I am inferior to Han Xin in that he can
command a million soldiers, win every battle, and capture every
city he attacks. All three are outstanding. I could conquer the
country because all three are within my recruitment. Xiang Yu had
Fan Zeng, but did not use him, which is why he was captured by me."
Liu Bang's words were true and honest. The three people he mentioned
played important roles in the establishment and administration of
the Han Dynasty, and became known as the "Three Persons of
Exceptional Ability of the Early Han."
When
studying the process of the Chu-Han War it is plain to see that
from the very beginning Liu Bang realized the importance of recruiting
talent. Among the monarchs of feudal China, Liu Bang was outstanding
for recognizing and recruiting talented people, treating them with
kindly tolerance, and skillfully manipulating them.
Xiao He: Foundation of the Han Dynasty
Among the three persons of exceptional ability, Liu Bang most relied
on Xiao He, listening closely to his advice and following his counsel.
Xiao He and Liu Bang were both from Peixian County, Jiangsu Province.
Before he joined the uprising, Xiao served as a warder in the county
prison, and was one of the earliest followers of Liu Bang during
the uprising. Time and practice proved that Liu Bang was right to
choose Xiao He as his advisor, as Xiao was loyal to Liu all his
life, a good administrator of state affairs, and played a significant
role in the Han Dynasty.
After
Liu Bang's troops captured Xianyang, capital of the Qin Dynasty,
most of his generals attempted to break into the residences of wealthy
officials where treasure and money were stored. Xiao He, however,
searched out the prime minister's and censor-in-chief's key documents,
so that Liu Bang could understand and master the kingdom's systems,
laws, national conditions and public feeling, and accordingly work
out the correct policies.
During the Chu-Han War, the greatest contribution made by Xiao He
was his setting up of a stable base area for Liu Bang. Xiao He,
who served as prime minister, was stationed at Guanzhong where his
duties were to recruit soldiers, raise funds, replenish manpower,
and provide supplies for the frontier. Liu Bang could consequently
fight successive battles in different areas, safe in the knowledge
that the rear was secure.
After the establishment of the Han Dynasty, Liu Bang dispensed rewards
according to merit, and made Xiao He his number one. Many generals
who had risked their lives fighting at the frontier took this amiss,
but Liu Bang stated that the generals who had fought and captured
cities were like the hawks and dogs that hunt prey, while Xiao He
was the one to discover the prey's whereabouts and to command the
hunt. The capture or loss of a city was an event that covered only
a short period of time, while administering the country and developing
production was a merit that carried on for generations. Liu Bang
was entirely right and impressively insightful so to say.
Another
of Xiao He's great merits was his recommendation of Han Xin, a great
military strategist in the Chu-Han War. Han Xin had formerly been
a minor officer with a lowly, insignificant position within Xiang
Yu's troops, and so deserted Xiang Yu and joined Liu Bang. Although
Xiao He recommended Han Xin several times to Liu Bang, he paid no
attention, and on seeing there was little chance of being awarded
an important post, Han Xin decided to steal away one night. On hearing
of this, Xiao He immediately galloped after him, pursuing him for
two days before finally catching up with him and persuading him
to go back. Liu Bang's reaction to this was to ask, "More than
a dozen generals have fled, but you have never pursued anyone but
Han Xin. Why?" Xiao He replied, "Ordinary generals are
easily found, but talent like Han Xin's is matchless. If Your Majesty
wants to conquer and rule the country, he is the person to help
you."
Liu Bang accepted Xiao He's advice. He ordered a Terrace of Acknowledging
the General to be built, appointed Han Xin General-in-Chief, and
held a grand ceremony. He talked with Han Xin about the current
Chu and Han situation and various countermeasures, and realized
that Han Xin was a man of brilliance unequalled at the time, and
regretted not having met with him earlier. From that time on, Han
Xin became commander of the Han troops, and finally defeated Xiang
Yu.
After the Han Dynasty had been founded, Han Xin was bestowed the
title of Prince Chu. He capitalized on his military power by collaborating
with several princes not of the Liu clan, and did not obey the commands
of the Han government. He was later demoted to Marquis Huaiyin.
From then on, he refused to go to court, giving sickness as an excuse.
In 197 BC, a general named Chen Xi plotted a rebellion, which Liu
Bang ordered Han Xin to suppress, but Han Xin took no action, and
Liu Bang was forced to lead the troops that suppressed the revolt.
At this time, when Liu Bang was away from the capital, his wife,
Empress Lu, discovered that Han Xin's behavior was suspicious, and
discussed the situation with Xiao He in Liu Bang's absence. At the
crucial moment, Xiao He hoaxed Han Xin into entering the imperial
palace, where he killed him for treason, thus heading off a crisis.
Later, when talking about Han Xin, people often say, "It was
Xiao He who led him to success, and it was also Xiao He who lead
him to defeat." Han Xin had only himself to blame for his defeat,
having left Xiao He with no other choice but to kill him.
Liu Bang: A Magnanimous Ruler
Liu
Bang and Han Xin had long been suspicious and envious of each other.
During the war between Chu and Han, a councilor under Han Xin named
Kuai Che urged him to make himself king and to apportion the country
between himself, the Chu and Han. Kuai knew that Han Xin had outstanding
military talents and that the reins of military power were in his
grasp. As Liu Bang did not totally trust Han Xin, an enormous potential
crisis loomed. Kuai pointed out, "If you go over to Chu, you
will not be trusted; if you continue to serve Han, you will be perceived
as a threat to its monarch. You enjoy such a high reputation that
I am truly worried about you." Han Xin believed Kuai to be
correct, but although he was on his guard against Liu Bang, he still
did not take Kuai's advice. Later, as Kuai predicted, he was killed.
Before being executed he sighed, "I regret not taking Kuai
Che's advice." On hearing of this, Liu Bang had Kuai Che arrested.
Kuai admitted that he had offered advice to Han Xin, and that had
he taken it, Liu Bang's fate would have been very different. Liu
Bang was incensed, and wanted to kill Kuai, but Kuai argued, "Jie's
dog barks at Yao, that is to say, every one acts according to the
nature of the one he serves. As an advisor to Han Xin, it was my
duty to be loyal to my master." After considering this carefully,
mulling it over time and again, Liu Bang pardoned Kuai Che. Later,
when Liu Bang's son succeeded him as emperor, Kuai Che served as
adviser to Prime Minister Cao Shen, and rendered outstanding service
in maintaining the rule of the Liu clan. There is a Peking Opera
called "Ten Elderly Pacify the Liu Regime," which tells
of how Liu Bang's wife, Empress Lu, usurped the throne, and began
killing off the Liu descendents. Kuai Che risked his life to go
to Huainan and persuade Liu Chang to launch an attack against Lu,
which ultimately preserved the Liu rule. This story might have been
fabricated by later generations, but Liu Bang's pardoning of Kuai
Che was recorded in historical documents. There are also many other
examples of Liu Bang's tolerance and magnanimity.
Xiang Yu: Utterly Isolated
Xiang Yu presented a striking contrast to Liu Bang. Xiang was robust
and strong in physique, but was narrow-minded. According to historical
records, he was self-willed, and jealous of the talented, and so
appointed people according to favoritism. Those he trusted and employed
were either members of the Xiang clan or his wife's brothers. Zhang
Liang and Han Xin had both been subordinates of Xiang Yu, but deserted
him because they saw no hope of being promoted. Other talented people
who deserted Xiang Yu to serve Liu Bang included Chen Ping, Ying
Bu, and Shu Suntong.
The main planners of the decisive battle between Chu and Han --
the Battle of Gaixia -- were Zhang Liang and Chen Ping, and the
chief commander was Han Xin. In this battle the Chu troops were
wiped out, and Xiang Yu was forced to commit suicide by the Wujiang
River. Until the moment he died, Xiang maintained that his death
was the will of Heaven.
Liu Bang once remarked that Xiang Yu had a wise and resourceful
adviser named Fan Zeng, whom Xiang called respectfully "Lesser
Father," but that he neither gave him any real power, nor acted
on his advice. Liu Bang was twice almost killed by Xiang Yu, and
was able to flee both times only because Xiang Yu had not taken
Fan's advice. One occasion was at the Hongmen Feast, when a meeting
was contrived as a trap after Liu Bang had been forced to go to
the Chu camps to make an apology. Fan Zeng and Xiang Yu had decided
to kill Liu Bang during this meeting, and Fan Zeng signaled Xiang
Yu to take action three times, but Xiang did not respond. As a result,
Liu Bang fled. After the banquet, Fan Zeng was furious, saying,
"This mean fellow is not worthy of my service. It should be
Peigong (Liu Bang) that defeats Xiang Yu and conquers the country."
During the Xingyang Battle, Liu Bang's troops were besieged and
ran out of ammunition and provisions, and as a stratagem to gain
a respite, Liu sued for peace, to which Xiang Yu agreed, but Fan
Zeng opposed strongly. At this time, Chen Ping contacted his old
acquaintance in the state of Chu and used the stratagem of sowing
distrust between Fan Zeng and Xiang Yu. As a result, Xiang Yu became
suspicious of Fan Zeng and discharged him from his post, and Liu
Bang thus avoided another disaster. Fan Zeng, at age 73, knowing
that he was unable to save the situation, bid Xiang Yu farewell
and left for his hometown, but died of disease on the way. After
Fan Zeng's death, Xiang Yu had no more capable men left on his side,
and a year later, the Chu came to an end.
Officials Came from among Commoners
Liu Bang never recruited personnel on a sectarian bias, paying more
attention to a person's actual ability and level of learning. Many
of his officials and generals came from poor families, and some
were even former bandits and convicts, such as his generals Peng
Yue and Qiong Bu. Fan Kuai, who defended him at the Hongmen Feast,
was originally a butcher. Most of the early generals and ministers
of the Han Dynasty came from common families, and their family backgrounds
and experience had great impact on their political decisions. At
the initial stage of the Han Dynasty, therefore, the ruling class
kept to a simple and frugal way of life and work, thus forming the
foundations for the Han Dynasty prosperity that occurred during
the reign of Liu Bang's son and grandson, known as "Governance
of Emperors Wendi and Jingdi."
As Liu Bang had realized the importance of employing talent during
the Chu-Han War, after the founding of the Han Dynasty he made "recruiting
talents" a basic state policy, thus institutionalizing it.
Zheng-Pi (soliciting) was a system of selecting talents from among
the common people during the Han Dynasty. Zheng refers to the system
whereby the emperor either directly solicited prominent and worthy
personages, or accepted those recommended by officials at the imperial
court. Such people were bestowed the title Boshi (an erudite official
of special broad skill and knowledge) or Daizhao (expectant official),
and served as the emperor's advisers. Pi refers to the system whereby
dukes, ministers, prefects and other high officials solicited aides
and staff. Zheng-Pi was a polite invitation, not a compulsory measure,
and those solicited had the right to accept or refuse such invitations.
The envoy would welcome those solicited in a deluxe chariot, so
as to express sincere respect for their talent.
Cha-Ju (investigation and recommendation) was another measure through
which to select officials during the Han Dynasty. Dukes, ministers,
marquises and regional inspectors conducted investigations to select
people of talent and recommend them to the imperial court. The scope
of those investigated was wide, and included able, virtuous, eloquent,
and outstanding xiucai (scholars who had passed imperial examinations
at the county level), and xiaolian (those filial and honest in performing
official duties). Before being recommended to the imperial court,
they were first selected and investigations made into their ability,
level of learning, and character. Those who passed this examination
were recruited as officials according to their abilities. Local
officials who concealed facts and did not recommend talent were
dismissed from their posts.
Zheng-Pi and Cha-Ju played positive roles in selecting talent from
among the common people and in creating an atmosphere of respect
for knowledge and talent. During the Han Dynasty, therefore, people
of talent emerged in large numbers. Their contribution to the prosperity
of this era of the Han Dynasty is ineffaceable.
By staff reporter HUO JIANYING December 2001 China Today